General Ecology

Ecology

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes called, the economy of nature. "Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus human-made world; the "systems" means that ecology is, by its very nature, not interested in just the components of nature individually but especially in how the parts interact. Ecology is technically an academic discipline, such as mathematics or physics, although in public or media use, it is often used to connote some sort of normative or evaluative issue as in something is “ecologically bad” or is or is not “good for the ecology”. More properly ecology is used only in the sense that it is an academic discipline, no more evaluative than mathematics or physics. When a normative or evaluative term is needed then it is more proper to use the term “environmental”, i.e., environmental quality or “environmentally degrading”. Most professional ecologists are not terribly unhappy when ecology is used in the normative sense, preferring the wider public awareness of environmental issues today compared to the widespread ignorance of three decades ago. 

The subject matter of ecology is normally divided onto four broad categories: physiological ecology, having to do with the response of single species to environmental conditions such as temperature or light; population ecology, usually focusing on the abundance and distribution of individual species and the factors that cause such distribution; community ecology, having to do with the number of species found at given location and their interactions; and ecosystems ecology, having to do with the structure and function of the entire suite of microbes, plants, and animals, and their abiotic environment, and how the parts interact to generate the whole. This branch of ecology often focuses on the energy and nutrient flows of ecosystems, and when this approach is combined with computer analysis and simulation we often call it systems ecology. Evolutionary ecology, which may operate at any of these levels but most commonly at the physiological or population level, is a rich and dynamic area of ecology focusing on attempting to understand how natural selection developed the structure and function of the organisms and ecosystems. 

Ecology is usually considered from the perspective of the specific geographic environment that is being studied a the moment: tropical rain forest, temperate grassland, arctic tundra, benthic marine, the entire biosphere, and so on. Thus you might study the population ecology of lions in an African savanna, an ecosystems study of a marine benthic environment, global nutrient budgets, and so on. The subject matter of ecology is the entire natural world, including both the living and the non living parts. Biogeography focuses on the observed distribution of plants and animals and the reasons behind it. More recently ecology has included increasingly the human-dominated world of agriculture, grazing lands for domestic animals, cities, and even industrial parks. Industrial ecology is a discipline that has recently been developed, especially in Europe, where the objective is to follow the energy and material use throughout the process of, e.g., making an automobile with the objective of attempting to improve the material and energy efficiency of manufacturing. For any of these levels or approaches there are some scientists that focus on theoretical ecology, which attempts to derive or apply theoretical or sometimes mathematical reasons and generalities for what is observed in nature, and empirical ecology, which is concerned principally with measurement. Applied ecology takes what is found from one or both of these approaches and uses it to protect or manage nature in some way. Related to this discipline is conservation biology. Plant ecology, animal ecology, and microbial ecology have obvious foci.

There are usually four basic reasons given to study and as to why we might want to understand ecology: first, since all of us live to some degree in a natural or at least partly natural ecosystem, then considerable pleasure can be derived by studying the environment around us. Just as one might learn to appreciate art better through an art history course so too might one appreciate more the nature around us with a better understanding of ecology. Second, human economies are in large part based on the exploitation and management of nature. Applied ecology is used every day in forestry, fisheries, range management, agriculture, and so on to provide us with the food and fiber we need. For example, in Argentina in many circles there is no difference between ecology and agriculture, which is essentially the ecology of crops and pastures. Third, human societies can often be understood very clearly from an ecological perspectives as we study, for example, the population dynamics (demography) of our own species, the food and fossil energy flowing through our society. Fourth, humans appear to be changing aspects of the global environment in many ways. Ecology can be very useful to help us understand what these changes are, what the implications might be for various ecosystems, and how we might intervene in either human economies or in nature to try to mitigate or otherwise alter these changes. There are many professional ecologists, who believe that these apparent changes from human activities have the potential to generate enormous harm to both natural ecosystems and human economies. Understanding, predicting and adapting to these issues could be the most important of all possible issue for humans to deal with. In this case ecology and environmentalism can be the same.

Since ecology by its very nature is an integrative discipline, science students preparing themselves professionally in the field are encouraged to take a broad suite of courses, mostly in the natural sciences and including physics, chemistry, and biology of many sorts but certainly including evolution, meteorology, hydrology, geography, and so on. Ecologists interested in human ecology are encouraged to take courses and undertake readings in agronomy, demography, human geography, sociology, economics, and so on. Since ecology is so broad there are many things that an ecologist might wish to do and to train for. Today many ecology courses are taught in biology departments, where the focus is often on population or community ecology and also individual species.

There are a number of classical areas of interest in ecology, and they revolve around questions similar to the following: how much is the photosynthesis of a hectare of land? How many animals of what types might that photosynthesis be able to support as a base for their food resources? How many species might “divide up” the land or food resources available? How do the species present change as the physical conditions change, for example as one ascends a mountain? What is the proportion of food that is passed on from each food or “trophic” level to the next? What are the mechanisms that control the populations, communities and ecosystems in some area? How are human activities impacting these natural systems?

Ecology should be more than just a set of ideas and principles that one might learn in a classroom or book but rather more a way of looking at the world which emphasizes the assessment and understanding of how the pieces fit together, how each influences and is influenced by the other pieces and how the whole operates in ways not really predictable from the pieces. When we are lucky we are able to capture these relations in conceptual, mathematical or, increasingly, computer models that allow us some sense of truly understanding the great complexity of nature, including as it is impacted by human activity. This is the goal of most ecologists.

             Compiled By: Abdullah and ZaibAhmadZaib

MY PROJECT REPORT ON LICE ( 03-03-2011 )

Project Name:  Research on Lice

Supervisor:      Madam Javeria Farooq

Student:             Ahmad Zaib

Roll No:              Eight_ 08

Semester:          4^th

Discipline:          M.Sc

Department:      Zoology

University:         Abdul       Wali     Khan

                        University         Mardan

Student Cell#
03469460420                                                            

Acknowledgment

                                                 I Would Like To Acknowledge My Respected Supervisor ‘ MADAM JAVERIA FAROOQ ‘ Who Helped Me Out In This Project And Helped Me A Lot In Sincere  Mood, Clear And Sure My Ideas About This Project And  Seeked Many Knowledge About Project And Research To Me.

PROJECT OBJECTIVES

1. To study behaviour of Anoplura and Mallophaga lice .
2. To compare Anoplura with Mallophaga lice .
3. To observe the effect of Anoplura and Mallophaga on host body .
4. To study the protective measurements against lice .

                              

                                  

     INTRODUCTION TO LICE

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Lice (singular: louse) is the common name for over 3000 species of wingless insects of the order Phthiraptera; three of which are classified as human disease agents. They are obligate ectoparasites of every avian and mammalian order.

           Most lice are scavengers, feeding on skin and other debris found on the host's body, but some species feed on sebaceous secretions and blood. Most are found only on specific types of animal, and, in some cases, only to a particular part of the body; some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species, although one to three is typical for mammals, and two to six for birds. For example, in humans, different species of louse inhabit the scalp and pubic hair. Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host. A louse's color varies from pale beige to dark gray; however, if feeding on blood, it may become considerably darker. Female lice are usually more common than the males, and some species are even known to be parthenogenetic. A louse's egg is commonly called a nit. Many lice attach their eggs to their host's hair with specialized saliva; the saliva/hair bond is very difficult to sever without specialized products. Lice inhabiting birds, however, may simply leave their eggs in parts of the body inaccessible to preening, such as the interior of feather shafts. Living lice eggs tend to be pale white. Dead lice eggs are more yellow. Lice are exopterygotes, being born as miniature versions of the adult, known as nymphs. The young moult three times before reaching the final adult form, which they usually reach within a month of hatching.

Lice are optimal model organisms to study the ecology of contagious pathogens since their quantityes, sex-ratios etc. are easier to quantify than those of other pathogens. The ecology of avian lice has been studied more intensively than that of mammal lice. The average number of lice per host tends to be higher in large-bodied bird species than in small ones. Louse individuals exhibit an aggregated distribution across bird individuals, i.e. most lice live on a few bird, while most birds are relatively free of lice. This pattern is more pronounced in territorial than in colonial – more social – bird species.

Bird taxa that are capable to exert stronger antiparasitic defence – such as stronger T cell immune response or larger uropygial glands – harbour more taxa of Amblyceran lice than others.Temporal bottlenecks in host population size may cause a long-lasting reduction of louse taxonomic richness E.g., birds introduced into New Zealand host fewer species of lice there than in Europe. Louse sex ratios are more balanced in more social hosts and more female-biased in less social hosts, presumably due to the stronger isolation among louse subpopulations (living on separate birds) in the latter case.

A few effects of lousiness upon the host;

Lice may reduce host life expectancy. Lice may transmit microbial diseases or helminth parasites. Ischnoceran lice may reduce the thermoregulation effect of the plumage, thus heavily infected birds loss more heat than other ones. Lousiness is a disadvantage in the context of sexual rivalry.

There are two basic types of lice, the sucking lice (Anoplura) and the chewing lice (Mallophaga);

Humans host have three different kinds of lice: head lice, body lice , and pubic lice. Lice infestations can be controlled with lice combs, and medicated shampoos or washes. Adult and nymphal lice can survive on sheep-shearers' moccasins for up to 10 days, but microwaving the footwear for five minutes in a plastic bag will kill the lice.

(H.V.Hoell et al)

HUMAN LICE    

In general, the life history of human lice is quite similar. Lice have three distinct stages- the egg (nit), the nymph, and the adult. The fertilized female louse lays eggs (up to 200 in head and body lice), which hatch in about a week. The young nymphs go through two molts. Nymphal development takes about 2 to 3 weeks. The third molt produces adult lice. The adult lives 3 to 4 weeks.

Basic differences exist between these lice. The head louse and the body louse are the same species. Authorities however, consider them subspecies due to differences in habits. There is also slight difference in size. Head lice are generally 10-29 percent smaller than body lice. These lice range from 2-3 mm in length, are longer than they are broad, and are dirty-white to greyish black. Head lice generally reside on the scalp or skin and attach the eggs or “nits”) close to the base of the hair.

Body lice generally reside in clothing or bedding. They most frequently occur in seams of undergarments or places where the body is in close contact with clothing, such as the crotch, waistline, or armpits. Their eggs are glued to clothing and only occasionally to body hairs. Body louse contact with the skin is during feeding only.

Crab lice are approximately 1 mm long and about as broad as they are long. They are greyish-white or somewhat pink and crab-like in appearance. They mainly infest the coarse body hairs of the pubic or perianal areas, although they have been taken from the eyebrows also. Their nits are attached to those coarse hairs.

Infestation by head or body lice can come about in a variety of ways. Infestation by crab lice, however, is mostly confined to sexual contact, although they can be acquired from sitting on an “inoculated” toilet seat or from clothing in a crowded locker room.

(Arthur L. Antonelli)

Infestation of lice on the human body (also known as pediculosis) is very common. Cases number in the hundreds of millions worldwide. While lice can occasionally cause significant illness (typhus, relapsing fever and trench fever), a lice infestation is generally more of an itchy and embarrassing experience. Three distinct presentations of lice infection exist -- each is caused by a unique parasite. Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are by far and away the most common infestation and favour no particular socioeconomic group. A genetically close "cousin," Pediculus humanus corporis, is responsible for body lice that are more commonly associated with poverty, overcrowding, and poor hygiene. Pubic lice (“crabs”) are caused by Pthirus pubis and are transmitted by intimate and/or sexual contact.

Lice infestation is a uniquely human experience. Lice do not jump or fly from host to host. They cannot be transited via animals but may be transferred by person to person via direct contact and by fomites (inanimate objects -- for example, caps, combs, sheets, etc).

Types of Lice

Three different types of lice that infest humans are;

Head Louse

              This is a grey-white animal about 2-3 mm in length. The life span of the female louse is about one month. During this time, she will produce between seven to 10 eggs ("nits") per day and attach them firmly to the hair shaft region close to the scalp or body. These nits, which resemble dandruff, are attached with glue like, water-insoluble substance that makes them difficult to remove. After six to 10 days, the nits hatch as nymphs and become adults in 10 days. Head lice are the most common form of lice infestation. The CDC reports that 6-12 million people in the United States are infested each year. Children aged 3-10 years in preschool, elementary school, and day-care centers are most likely to have lice. Girls are more commonly infested, but hair length or personal hygiene is not predictive factors.

Head-lice transmission is most commonly via direct head-to-head contact. Sharing pillows, caps, headphones, and combs/brushes are notorious ways to transmit head lice. Since the head louse dies due to dehydration within two days if not feeding on their human host, contact with carpeting and couches is less commonly seen as a route of transmission. Most lice infestations are asymptomatic (meaning they cause no symptoms). However, itching of the scalp, neck, and behind the ears are characteristic symptoms. Intense scratching may lead to secondary skin infections and associated enlargement of the lymph nodes of the neck and scalp regions. The diagnosis is made by demonstration of the louse or nits. Nits are more easily seen when examined using a Wood's light ("black light") that causes them to fluoresce as pale blue objects attached to the hair shafts near the scalp. A fine-tooth comb run through the hair will also demonstrate adult lice and nits. The body louse is slightly larger than the head louse but has the same general appearance. Unlike the head louse, which lives on its human host, the body louse lives in clothing (commonly in the seamed areas) and then transfers to the human host to feed. The life cycle of the head louse and the body louse .

Body Louse

These are similar in character and duration. An important difference, however, is the ability of the body louse to survive for up to 30 days away from its human host.  Body-lice infestation is a prominent public-health problem in communities with large populations dealing with poverty, overcrowding, and poor personal hygiene. Itching is the primary symptom of body-lice infestation. Areas where seams of clothing are tightly adherent to the body are the most likely areas of involvement. Red, itchy bite marks may be seen on the body. The diagnosis of body lice involvement can be made by identifying lice or nits in clothing, bedding, or linens -- especially in the seam regions .

Pubic Louse

The ("crab louse") is distinct morphologically (somewhat rounded with three pairs of legs on either side of the body from which it takes its descriptive name) from the head and body louse. The female lifespan is slightly shorter (three weeks), and she produces fewer eggs per day (three) than her counterparts. The eggs attach to the base of the pubic hair shaft for approximately six to eight days before hatching. In adults, pubic lice are transmitted by direct sexual contact; children generally contact the infection via nonsexual transmission from their parents. Transmission by bed linens and infested clothing is less likely. Intense itching of the pubic area is characteristic. Axillary regions, eyelashes, and even the scalp may be involved. Nighttime symptoms are may be more intense. After being bitten, a bluish colored sore may develop in the involved areas. The diagnosis is established by demonstration of crab-shaped lice attached to the hair shaft. Consideration of infection by other sexually transmitted diseases should be entertained in any adult with pubic lice. Condoms do not prevent pubic-lice infestation. Contrary to popular thinking, pubic lice are not spread by toilet seats .

   BIRD LICE

Bird louse refers to any chewing louse (small, biting insects) of order Phthiraptera which parasitizes warm-blooded animals, especially birds. Bird lice may feed on feathers, skin, or blood. They have no wings, and their biting mouth parts distinguish them from true lice, which suck blood. Earlier all chewing lice were considered to form the paraphyletic order Mallophaga while the sucking lice were thought to consider the order Anoplura.

Almost all domestic birds are hosts for at least one species of bird louse. Chickens and other poultry are attacked by many kinds of bird lice. Bird lice but usually do not cause much harm to a bird unless it is unusually infested as in the case of birds with damaged bills which cannot preen themselves properly. In such cases, their irritation may cause the bird to damage itself by scratching. In extreme cases, the infestation may even interfere with egg production and the fattening of poultry. Unlike true lice, bird lice do not carry infectious diseases. Having coevolved with their specific host, phylogenetic relationships among bird lice are sometimes of use when trying to determine phylogenetic relationships among birds. (Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 09 April, 2010)

The primary effects of lice on their hosts are the irritations they cause. The birds become;

Restless and do not feed or sleep well. They may injure themselves or damage their

Feathers by pecking or scratching areas irritated by lice. Body weight and egg production may drop. All lice infecting poultry and birds are the chewing type. Mites may be confused with lice, but mites suck blood. In general, each species of lice is confined to a particular kind of poultry, although some may pass from one kind to another when birds are closely associated. Chickens usually are infested with one or more of seven different species; turkeys have three common species. All species of poultry lice have certain common habits. All live continuously on feathered hosts and soon die if removed. The eggs are attached to the feathers. Young lice resemble adults except in color and size. Lice differ in preferred locations on the host, and these preferences have given rise to the common names applied to various species. The incubation period of lice eggs is four to seven days, and development of the lice between hatching and the adult stage requires about twenty-one days. Mating takes place on the fowl, and egg-laying begins two to three days after lice mature. The numbers of eggs probably ranges from fifty to three-hundred per female louse.

The Head Louse is found mainly on the head, although it occurs occasionally on the neck and elsewhere. It usually is located near the skin in the down or at the base of the feathers on the top and back of the head and beneath the beak. In fact, the head of the louse often is found so close to the skin that poultrymen may think it is attached to the skin or is sucking blood. Although it does not suck blood, the head louse is very irritating and ranks first among lice as a pest of young chickens and turkeys. Heavily infested chicks soon become droopy and weak and may die before they are a month old. When the chickens become fairly well feathered, head lice decrease but may increase again when the fowls reach maturity. This louse is oblong, greyish and about 1/10-inch long. The pearly-white eggs are attached singly to the down or at the base of the small feathers on the head. They hatch Within five days into minute, pale, translucent lice resembling adults in shape.

The Body Louse of chickens prefers to stay on the skin rather than on the feathers. It Chooses parts of the body that are not densely feathered, such as the area below the vent. In heavy infestations, it may be found on the breast, under the wings and on other parts of The body, including the head.

When the feathers are parted, straw-colored body lice may be seen running rapidly on the Skin in search of cover. Eggs are deposited in clusters near the base of small feathers, Particularly below the vent, or in young fowls, frequently on the head or throat. Eggs hatch in about a week and lice reach maturity within twenty days. This is the most common louse infesting grown chickens. When present in large numbers, the skin is irritated greatly and scabs may result, especially below the vent.

The Shaft Louse or small body louse is similar in appearance to the body louse, but smaller. It has a habit of resting on the body feather shafts of chickens where it may be seen running rapidly toward the body when feathers are parted suddenly. Sometimes as many as a dozen lice may be seen scurrying down a feather shaft. Since the shaft louse apparently feeds on parts of the feathers, it is found in limited numbers on turkeys, guinea fowl and ducks kept in close association with chickens. It does not infest young birds until they become well feathered.

 ( Wikipedia.com )

Lice in Pet Birds

            There are a large number of species of avian or bird lice, some of
which are named after the bird they parasitize or the area or part
of the body of the birds that they refer to live in it.
Lice are wingless insects and are the most common external
parasites of birds. They are so small they are often invisible
to the naked eye and some time we use a magnified glass.
Lice are placed into two groups: Biting lice and sucking lice.
The entire life cycle of the lice is spent entirely on the bird, and
leaving it (lice) just only to attack other or on another victim.
The eggs are laid in clusters along the shaft of the feathers.
These egg clusters are referred to as nits, and hatch within a
few days, producing nymphs. Nymphs are young immature lice. The
nymphs then go through changes and later become larvae, which go
through several more changes before they finally become mature
adult lice. Adult lice can live for several months on the host,
but they can only live for a few days away from or off their bird
host.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          (PetCareTips.net/BirdLice)

Chicken lice live for the most part in the feathers of a chicken and to some degree on the skin. One might suspect that these tiny creatures are blood suckers, and 1.a host of them would eventually do a chicken in. The fact is, chicken lice eat mostly dead skin, scales, and feathers. An individual louse or a small number of lice will do little harm to a chicken, but a large infestation can cause the bird a great deal of grief, perhaps to the point where it will die.

Lice are extremely irritating for our chickens, and a severe infestation can also kill small chicks.Lice are just big enough to be spotted with the naked eye as pale insects on the skin. When you examine your chicken’s feathers, you might spot them crawling around the base of the feathers, and you may see clusters of their eggs on the feather stems. Lice love somewhere soft and warm, so also check under the wings and around the vent area. Other symptoms include a dirty vent area, weight loss and reduced egg yield.There are several types of biting lice that effect chickens and other poultry. These are known as ectoparasites or external parasites as they live on the outside of the bird. They range in size from about 1 to 4mm and can be found crawling on the bird at the base of the feathers, spreading from bird to bird by direct contact. Off the bird lice can survive for a few days so although less likely, can also spread from bird to bird via the hen house or litter. Most chickens will have a few lice on them from time to time but it's important not to let the numbers get out of control.

(Poultry Farm.com)

Pigeon Lice

 The slender pigeon louse is a long, slender louse with two bladelike hairs near the front of its head. The threadlike antennae are five-segmented. They measure 0.078 to 0.12 inches in length. This louse is only found on four species of pigeons, including the widely distributed rock dove or city pigeon. Rock doves (and their ectoparasites) live with humans and have been introduced throughout the world. The distribution of the slender pigeon louse is thought to match that of the rock dove. They are found only among the feathers on the upper and lower sides of the wings of pigeons. Slender pigeon lice eat the fluffy parts of the feathers. The slender body of this louse allows it to move in between the feather barbs. They grab the edges of feather barbs with their jaws to avoid the preening activities of the host.Females attach their eggs on the underside of the wing feathers near the pigeon's body. They hatch in three to five days at 98.6°F. They are used as research animals by scientists studying how animals change over time and how they interact with parasites.

 (Kim, K. C., H. D. Pratt, and C. J. Stojanovich)

Sampling

       For collection of different lice , first selected those animals in which these are common and easily collected. Such as Pigeon, Chicken, Quail, Dog, Goat,, Buffalo and also Man.

_ On the first day captured a pair of pigeon and took it in laboratory for collection of lice and observed some lice in their tail and feather region.

_ Next day selected the human lice for sampling and for it’s collection went to a house in village where hygienic conditions were very poor and after many excuses collected some lice from a women head and took to laboratory for more procedure and observation.

_ For more sampling selected chicken, first a poultry chicken and took to laboratory but no lice were in poultry chicken. Then choose the domestic chicken and collected lice from their body and feathers and preserved them in ethanol solution. The ethanol solution provide safety to lice body and in ethanol solution lice remain in original structure.

_ For more observation selected the small bird quail and next day collected it’s lice in laboratory of our department.

_ Next target for sampling of lice was of dog. After observation of skin and hairs of two dogs no collection of lice because there were no lice and instead of lice Fleas were present.

_ When in vain in collection of dog lice, then selected lice of goat for sampling and went to sheep yard and there caught a goat and with help of friends and magnified glass observation of it’s body skin and hairs collection of lice were taken and took to lab in ethanol solution for further procedure.

_ Next day some lice from skin of domestic buffalo were collected and preserved in small  glass bottle with ethanol solution and took to laboratory for more observation under microscope.

           Preserved these all lice collections in separate small small glass bottles with ethanol solution for studying their general morphology and for their comparison in our department laboratory.

                                                        

    Apparatus

       The apparatus used in sampling and collection of these lice were ;

_  Magnified Glass: For identifying and observing lice on the host body.

_ Forceps: For capturing, catching and collecting lice from animal host body.

_ Small Brushes: For removing lice from skin or separating lice from hairs of the host body.

_ Scissors: For cutting those hairs in which lice were present and survive there. (We need scissors in that condition when lice doesn’t remove or separate easily from skin hairs in which they are present).

_ Plastic Gloves: Used for in laboratory observations.

_ Rubber Gloves: For catching animals tightly with hands.

_ Small Glass Bottles: Having ethanol solution to preserve lice in it.

_ Glass Slides: Used to keep lice on it with a drop of water under electric microscope.

_ Electric Microscope: Used to magnify the louse 100 to 1000 times to our choice to study keenly and deeply.

_ Nose Masks: Used to prevent from lice infection.

    Chemicals

         The most commonly used chemicals in this lice project were ;

1.    Ethanol Solution

2.    Chloroform

                 The Ethanol solution commonly used for preserving lice because in ethanol the small parasites like lice are preserved safely and purely and clearly. Make first ethanol solution by mixing 75% ethanol or alcohol and 25% water in burette and obtained the ethanolic or alcoholic  solution that used later for preservation of collected lice.

                While the Chloroform chemicals were used for some animals hosts to unconscious them to collect lice easily and safely from their body. So these two chemicals were used as one for Preservation and other for to gave Anesthesia to lice host animal.

     Procedure

          Observation and Studying lice of these different animals were made by the following procedure.

_ First of all when select the Pigeon and took it in laboratory and then there observed their feathers and tail regions deeply under magnified glass and some time late succeeded when found some moving lice there in their feathers, then used small brush to remove these pigeon lice from feathers and after this took these lice on glass slides with drops of water and studied their general morphology under electric microscope and noted some specific points about it’s structure and then preserved them in ethanol solution for comparing with other animals lice.

_ Collected Human lice from the head of dirty poor girl and preserved in ethanol solution and on next day in lab studied these lice under electric microscope and pointed out some main dissimilarities between pigeon and human lice.

_ After this collected the Chicken (domestic hen) lice from skin and feathers of chicken through help of small brush and magnified glass after giving anesthesia to chicken because the chicken was hesitated and without this collection of lice from their body was difficult and so used chloroform and then easily collected their body lice and also from their feathery region and studied under electric microscope the general morphology of this louse of chicken and compared with those of other lice that were collected and lastly preserved in ethanol solution kept in small glass bottles.

_ Next collected small bird Quail lice from quail body (mostly feathery and tail region) after observing under magnified glass and removing through small brush some glued lice after cutting their feathers with scissors. Then observed and studied under electric microscope and after studying found that these lice were totally different from other animals lice and noted their structures for further studying and comparison.

_ Next caught dog but no lice collection, after this another dog but same situation and no lice were present and instead of lice many fleas were moving in their body hairs and skin.

_ After this collection of goat lice through help of forceps occur and somehow also cut those hairs having lice and took them to lab preserved in ethanol solution and keenly studied them their under electric microscope and noted about it’s morphology and their structure.

_ Then collected some lice from buffalo skin through and forceps and with help of a friend, removed them from their skin through nails and forceps and took to lab and studied under electric microscope and noted their general morphology and then preserved in small glass bottles having ethanol solution and then compared these lice with those of other collected lice and found out the results about it’s identification, morphology and structure.

                 We preserved all these lice in small glass bottles, each animal lice in each glass bottle with ethanol solution in it and with names of their respective animals hosts (from whom they collected ), locality (area where they selected and collected) and with date of their collection.

    Identification

              For identification of lice used electric microscope in laboratory of our Department and also internet for it’s comparison with other lice. Lice is the common name for over 3000 species of wingless insects of the order Phthiraptera. These lice which were collected are as ;

1.Human Lice:

                Human lice have  three species, as ;

a)- Head lice: This lice (Pediculus capitis)  is a grey white animal about 2 to 3 mm in length.

b)-Body lice: Also called (Pediculus humanus) is slightly larger than the head louse but has the same general appearance.

c)-Pubic lice: The Crab louse (Pthirus pubis) is distinct morphologically and somewhat rounded with 3-pairs of legs on either side of the body from which it takes it’s descriptive name from the head and body louse.

2.Pigeon Lice:

              The Pigeon louse is slender like and this slender like pigeon louse is elongated in shape, slender louse is with two blade like hairs near the front of it’s head. The thread like antennae are 5 segmented.

3.Chicken Lice:

                              These lice are small, flat, wingless, parasitic insects with mouth parts formed for chewing or sucking. Legs and antennae are short.

4.Quail Lice:

         These are small tiny and flat body lice and short length commonly as long as broad usually.

5.Goat Lice:

         There are two types of Goat lice that affecting goats ;

a)- The biting Louse (Damilinia caprae)

b)- The Sucking Louse (Linognathus stenopsis)

              These lice are small (only 1 to 2 mm long) and are grey or cream in colour.

6.Buffalo Lice:

           The Buffalo louse is grey yellowish or yellow in colour, body is flat and somehow larger from bird’s lice.

Comparison

       These lice are almost similar to one another but comparison occur between these mostly in it’s colour and shape of body.

LICE	BODY SHAPE	COLOUR
Human Louse	Rounded	Grey White
Pigeon Louse	Slender	Grey reddish, or, Grey Whitish
Quail Louse	Flat	Grey Yellowish
Chicken louse	Flat	Pale Yellow
Goat Louse	Cylindrical	Grey, or, Cream
Buffalo Louse	Flat and Broad	Yellowish

Discussion

          My Project was basically on lice of Mammals and Birds and their distribution in different parts of their body and their comparison with each other. I have found that lice were mostly found in birds. There were fleas, ticks and some mites on some mammals with lice. I have found that human head lice are large and conspicous as compared to other lice and same is the case of buffalo lice. I keenly observed these lice and compared those of mammals and birds lice in which dissimilarities exist in their morphology as, one is sucking habitate and other having bitting morphology. I observed in their sampling that lice are common and abundant in animals of non-hygenic areas. In humans lice were prominent to head and in birds, these were large in number in their feathers and neck region. I compared these lice mostly on their body shape, colour and their habitate. From study of these lice I observed no symptoms of their disease but they usually irritates the site of bite and damage feathers in birds and cause hesitation to their host animal.

Conclusion

          From the above work I conclude that lice in mammals are some how different from lice of birds. As they have very small differences in their species of host and a little bit highly differ from that of birds lice. But it’s nature is same and I conclude it that lice are almost parasitic in nature as it bites and sucks because there are two forms of lice.

a)- Bitting Lice,

b)- Sucking Lice

Sucking lice found usually in mammals and Bitting lice are present in birds. These lice are ectoparasitic and found over the skin of their host. These lice after sucking and bitting cause irritation at site of bite and hesitation to their host.

            In the light of this review it is concluded that further research is to be conducted that further research is to be conducted into the lice comparison and infestation because it is a common problem in mammals and birds, which causes heavy damage to birds feathers and also mammals and some how their production.