KILLER WHALE UNIQUE BEHAVIOR

Behavior of Killer Whale

A.  Social structure.

1.  Killer whales live in cohesive long-term social units called pods.

2.  The size of a pod usually varies from fewer than 5 to about 30 individuals.   Pod sizes may change with different geographic locations; off Alaska and Antarctica, groups of more than 100 animals have been seen.

3.  Pods usually consist of males, females, and calves of varying ages.   Females and juveniles generally remain in the center of the pod, while adult males swim at the wings.

4.  A pod is not the smallest or largest social group in a killer whale community.   Researchers have identified the most fundamental social units in a resident pod as maternal groups.  A maternal group consists of a mother and her offspring (not including adult daughters with offspring of their own).  One or more maternal groups may travel together in a subpod.  Whales in a subpod are likely to be closely related; a subpod contains mothers and daughters, and probably sisters and cousins.

5.  A clan is a social level above the pod level.  Clans are made up of pods in an area with similar dialects and are thought to be related.  These pods may have developed from one ancestral pod that grew and fragmented over time.  Finally, the top level of the killer whale social structure is a community.  A community is composed of several pods that have been seen to travel together.  Pods from one community have not been observed traveling with those of another, even if their ranges overlap.

6.  Sometimes smaller pods may join to form groups of 50 or more individuals (up to 500 in some cases) which are sometimes referred to as herds or aggregations.

7.  There is an occasional exchange of members between pods, especially during breeding season.

B.  Resident/Transient Pods.

1.  In the Pacific Northwest, researchers categorize groups of killer whales into transient-type whales and resident-type whales, based on physical and behavioral characteristics.  A third type, offshore whales, have been identified but little studied.  Offshore whales seem to travel in larger groups of 30 to 60 individuals and are seldom seen in coastal waters.

2.  Researchers have noted several differences between resident and transient whales.  Interactions between resident and transient groups have never been observed; in fact, they appear to avoid each other.

3.  The size of a resident pod varies from as few as 5 to as many as 50 individuals.  Transient whales often travel alone, or in groups of two to seven individuals.

4.  Resident pods tend to travel within specific ranges while transient groups' ranges are unpredictable.  Resident pods were observed to remain within a range of about 800 km (500 mi.) of the coastline.  Residents travel direct routes, moving generally from headland to headland along the coast.  Transients may spend twice as much time traveling as their movements tend to be circuitous, often following the contours of the shoreline.  Transient whales have been sighted within a 1,450-km (900-mi.) range.

5.  Residents and transients also differ in their diets.

6.  There is evidence for the existence of at least eight communities of Alaskan killer whales: four resident stocks, three transient stocks, and one offshore stock.

C.  Communication.

1.  Toothed whales do not possess vocal cords in the larynx.   Sounds are probably produced by movements of air between nasal sacs in the blowhole region.

2.  During some vocalizations, killer whales release air from the blowhole, but scientists believe that these bubble trails and clouds are a visual display.

3.  The frequency of sounds produced by a killer whale ranges from about 0.1 kHz to about 40 kHz.  Most sounds produced as part of social behavior range in frequency from 0.5 kHz to about 16 kHz, with most of the energy at 3 to 4 kHz.

4.  Killer whales produce clicks and sounds that resemble moans, trills, grunts, whistles, squeaks, and creaking doors.  They make these sounds at any time and at all depths.  The sounds vary in volume, wavelength, and pattern.

5.  Each individual sound a killer whale makes is termed a call.  Calls that sound the same time after time are called stereotyped calls.  All the stereotyped calls in a killer whale's repertoire make up a vocalization system called a dialect.   Although scientists have noted that there is some type of ordering or structure to the calls, a dialect is not the same thing as a language.

6.  Pods that associate with one another may share certain calls, but the vocal repertories of each pod remain distinct enough that scientists can identify pods by the sounds they make.  An analysis of calls of Icelandic and Norwegian killer whale pods revealed 24 and 23 discrete calls, respectively, with no evidence that the two pods shared calls.  Killer whales that are separated by great geographic distances have completely different dialects.

7.  Bioacoustic studies can be an important means of tracking pod movements.  If they provide a reliable index of genetic variability, they can also become a useful management tool.

D.  Social Behavior.

1.  Killer whales in a pod appear to establish strong social bonds.   Behavior studies suggest that certain animals prefer associating with one another.

2.  As with most species, a social hierarchy exists within a group of killer whales.  The killer whale social hierarchy is matriarchal or female-dominant.   The animals establish dominance and communicate their social order by slapping their tails against the water, head-butting, jaw-snapping, biting, raking (tooth-scratching), and other vigorous postures and gestures.

3.  Numerous tooth-scratch marks can be seen on this killer whale.  Sometimes tooth scratches can leave a killer whale with scars, but generally these scratches are superficial and heal quickly.

4.  SeaWorld observers found that calves receive social 'discipline', from their mothers and other significant adults, as early as two days (with an average of 56 days) after birth.  'Discipline' may be in the form of restraining (corralling the calf thus restricting its movements) or tooth-scratching.

E.  Individual Behavior.

1.  Killer whale behavior includes spy-hopping (hanging vertically in the water with the head partially above water), breaching (jumping clear of the water and landing on the back or side), lob-tailing (slapping the tail flukes on the surface of the water), pec-slapping (slapping a pectoral flipper on the surface of the water), and dorsal fin slapping (rolling onto one side to slap the fin on the surface of the water).   Scientists believe that these behaviors are connected with displays of dominance or to survey a surrounding area.

        
Killer whale behavior includes (from left) spy-hopping, breaching, lob-tailing and pec-slapping.

2.  Killer whales may do some of these behaviors to relieve an itch, as their outer skin layer is continually sloughed as they swim.  The growth of killer whale epidermal (skin) cells is about 290 times faster than that of a human forearm.

3.  Killer whales in the Johnstone Strait in British Columbia often engage in beach rubbing -- they rub their bodies along the pebbly bottoms of shallow bays.  The reason for this behavior is not entirely clear, but it may help the whales remove external parasites, or they may do it for the tactile stimulation.

4.  Behavior studies of several cetacean species in zoological parks suggest that killer whales are among the most curious of all whales, with a great tendency to 'play' and to manipulate objects.

F.  Sleep.

1.  The ways in which killer whales sleep are largely a mystery, although studies done in the former Soviet Union suggest that deep sleep in dolphins (a close relative of the killer whale) may occur in only one brain hemisphere at a time.

2.  Killer whales have been observed resting both day and night for short periods of time or as long as eight hours straight.

3.  While resting, killer whales may swim slowly or make a series of 3 to 7 short dives of less than a minute before making a long dive for up to three minutes.

                                Zaib Ahmad Zaib

PROJECT ON TREMATODES

General introduction of Trematodes

Trematodes

 Are flukes of the class Trematoda; phylum Platyhelminthes. Important ones affecting man belong to the genera Schistosoma (blood fluke), Echinostoma (intestinal fluke), Fasciolopsis (liver fluke), Gastrodiscoides (intestinal fluke), Heterophyes (intestinal fluke), Metagonimus (intestinal fluke), Clonorchis (Asiatic liver fluke), Fasciola (liver fluke), Dicrocoelium (liver fluke), Opisthorchis (liver fluke), and Paragonimus (lung fluke). Man usually becomes infected after ingesting insufficiently cooked fish, crustaceans, or vegetables that contain their larvae. The cycle begins when larvae are released into freshwater by infected snails. The free-swimming larvae can then directly penetrate the skin of humans while swimming or be ingested after encycsting in or on various edible vegetation, fish, or crustaceans.

The oval-shaped fluke (sometimes called a flatworm) has a tough outer body layer called a tegument that covers layers of circular, longitudinal, and diagonal muscles that protects it from the human digestive tract. Some can inhabit the liver, bile duct, or lymph vessels. They can be several inches long, an inch or so wide, and only thick enough to hold themselves together. Below are just a very few examples of the thousands known.

Blood fluke

Schistosoma japonicum, S. mansoni, S. haematobium are three species of blood flukes (schistosomes) that cause the disease schistosomiasis, which infects about 200 million people worldwide. One of the three types of disease, S. japonicum is found in Asia; S. mansoni occurs in Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Caribbean, and South America; the third, S. haematobium is found in Egypt. Freshwater snails play intermediate host in the life cycle development of these blood flukes. The snails release larvae into the water, where they can penetrate the skin of swimmers or bathers. The parasites burrow into the skin, and then are carried into the bloodstream to be taken to the liver, intestines, or bladder. There are two forms of schistosomiasis. With one, inflammation begins when the worms lodge in the lining of the intestine or liver. With the other form, the bladder and urinary tract can become fatally infected by worms as they lodge in the walls. Travellers to Africa, especially, are warned not to bath, wade, or swim in fresh water because of possible infestations blood flukes. Infection causes fever and chills, but also elevates the number of white blood cells (eosinophils), as well as producing abdominal pain resulting from enlargements of the liver and spleen. Often, these symptoms do not show up for four to eight weeks after exposure, and, therefore, may not be associated with the possibility of parasite infestation while on vacation.

Liver fluke

Clonorchis sinensis is common in the Orient and Hawaii, and is transmitted through the ingestion of raw, dried, salted, pickled, or undercooked fish. Snails, carp, and forty additional fish species have been known to play the intermediate host to this fluke. In humans, it inhabits the bile ducts of the liver, causing it to enlarge and become tender, as well as producing chills, fever, jaundice, and a type of hepatitis.

Oriental lung fluke:

Paragonimus westermani is found mainly in the Far East, where it enters the body, producing the disease called paragonimiasis. Humans acquire the fluke ingesting infected crabs and crayfish that have not been sufficiently cooked or are served raw. The adult worms go to the lungs, and, sometimes, the brain, where seizures similar to epilepsy can occur. Symptoms include an occasional mild cough, producing a peculiar rusty brown sputum. The lung fluke can perforate lung tissue and deplete oxygen supplies to the entire bloodstream. Symptoms often resemble those of pulmonary tuberculosis.

Sheep liver fluke:

Fasciola hepatica is more common in Central and South America, parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia. Infection is usually acquired from eating the larva worms encysted on such aquatic vegetation as watercress. Worms migrate to the liver and bile ducts, where they produce upper right quadrant abdominal pain, liver abscesses, and fibrosis.

Intestinal fluke:

Fasciolopsis buski is more common in Southeast Asia, Australia, and Latin America. Transmission occurs when individuals bite into the unpeeled outer skin of plants that harbor encycsted larvae. Such plants can be water chestnuts, bamboo shoots, and lotus plant roots because they are often cultivated in ponds and streams infected by animal waste. Adult flukes live in the duodenum (the shortest and widest part of the small intestine) and jejunum (connects the duodenum and the ileum, which opens into the large intestine), where they cause ulceration. Symptoms include the following: diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, as well as facial and abdominal edema.

Anatomy

Trematodes are flattened oval or worm-like animals, usually no more than a few centimetres in length, although species as small as 1 millimetre (0.039 in) and as large as 7 metres (23 ft) are known. Their most distinctive external feature is the presence of two suckers, one close to the mouth, and the other on the underside of the animal.

The body surface of trematodes comprises a tough syncitial tegument, which helps protect against digestive enzymes in those species that inhabit the gut of larger animals. It is also the surface of gas exchange; there are no respiratory organs.

The mouth is located at the forward end of the animal, and opens into a muscular, pumping pharynx. The pharynx connects, via a short oesophagus, to one or two blind-ending caeca, which occupy most of the length of the body. In some species, the caeca are themselves branched. As in other flatworms, there is no anus, and waste material must be egested through the mouth.

Although the excretion of nitrogenous waste occurs mostly through the tegument, trematodes do possess an excretory system, which is instead mainly concerned with osmoregulation. This consists of two or more protonephridia, with those on each side of the body opening into a collecting duct. The two collecting ducts typically meet up at a single bladder, opening to the exterior through one or two pores near the posterior end of the animal.

The brain consists of a pair of ganglia in the head region, from which two or three pairs of nerve cords run down the length of the body. The nerve cords running along the ventral surface are always the largest, while the dorsal cords are present only in the Aspidogastrea. Trematodes generally lack any specialised sense organs, although some ectoparasitic species do possess one or two pairs of simple ocelli.

Reproductive system

Most trematodes are simultaneous hermaphrodites, having both male and female organs. There are usually two testes, with sperm ducts that join together on the underside of the front half of the animal. This final part of the male system varies considerably in structure between species, but may include sperm storage sacs and accessory glands, in addition to the copulatory organ, which is either eversible, and termed a cirrus, or non-eversible, and termed a penis.

There is usually only a single ovary, which is connected, via a pair of ducts to a number of vitelline glands on either side of the body, that produce yolk cells. Eggs pass from the ovary into a glandular receptacle called the ootype or Mehlis' gland, where fertilization occurs. This opens into an elongated uterus that opens to the exterior close to the male opening. The ovary is often also associated with a storage sac for sperm, and a copulatory duct termed Laurer's canal.

Life cycles

Almost all trematodes infect mollusks as the first host in the life cycle, and most have a complex life cycle involving other hosts. Most trematodes are monoecious and alternately reproduce sexually and asexually. The two main exceptions to this are the Aspidogastrea, which have no asexual reproduction, and the schistosomes, which are dioecious.

In the definitive host, in which sexual reproduction occurs, eggs are commonly shed along with host feces. Eggs shed in water release free-swimming larval forms that are infective to the intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs.

A species that exemplifies the remarkable life history of the trematodes is the bird fluke, Leucochloridium paradoxum. The definitive hosts, in which the parasite multiplies, are various woodland birds, while the hosts in which the parasite grows (intermediate host) are various species of snail. The adult parasite in the bird's gut produces eggs and these eventually end up on the ground in the bird's faeces. Some very fortunate eggs get swallowed by a snail and here they hatch into tiny, transparent larva (miracidium). These larvae grow and take on a sac-like appearance. This stage is known as the sporocyst and it forms a central body in the snail's digestive gland that extends into a brood sac in the snail's head, muscular foot and eye-stalks. It is in the central body of the sporocyst where the parasite replicates itself, producing lots of tiny embryos (redia). These embryos move to the brood sac and mature into cercaria.

 Trematodes Infection in Birds

            My assignment is basically to search research papers or abstracts of any journal or any other book on the internet in which Trematodes infection in birds is documented. I have downloaded some of the research papers and abstracts of some journals in which the topic is discussed.  Which are as follows.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    

1              Kisaengchunghak Chapchi. 1991 Sep;29(3):227-33.

[Trematode infections in the small intestine of Egretta alba modesta in Kangwon-do]

Ryang YS, Ahn YK, Yoon MB.

Department of Medical Technology, College of Health Sciences, Wonju College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Korea.

Abstract

We surveyed 12 migrating large egrets, Egretta alba modesta, for their infection status with intestinal trematodes, from June to September, 1990. All of them were infected with one or more flukes. Total 5 species were identified. Their infection rates and total numbers of worms were Metagonimus sp. 67% and 1,412, Centrocestus armatus 67% and 2,306, Echinochasmus japonicus 50% and 99, Strigea falconis 83% and 635, and a diplostomid fluke 33% and 36. The number of worms in a bird was in the range from 6 to 896. This is the first record that the egret is a reservoir host of Metagonimus sp., C. armatus, E. japonicus, and S. falconis. S. falconis is a new parasite fauna in Korea. Migrating birds must play an important role in the transmission and spreading of these intestinal trematodes in Korea.

PMID: 1786249 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Distribution patterns of marine bird digenean larvae in periwinkles along the southern coast of the Barents Sea.

Galaktionov KV, Bustnes JO.

Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, White Sea Biological Station, St Petersburg, Russia.

Abstract

An important component of the parasite fauna of seabirds in arctic regions are the flukes (Digena). Different species of digeneans have life cycles which may consist of 1 intermediate host and no free-living larval stages, 2 intermediate hosts and 1 free-living stage, or 2 intermediate hosts and 2 free-living larval stages. This study examined the distribution of such parasites in the intertidal zones of the southern coast of the Barents Sea (northwestern Russia and northern Norway) by investigating 2 species of periwinkles (Littorina saxatilis and L. obtusata) which are intermediate hosts of many species of digeneans. A total of 26,020 snails from 134 sampling stations were collected. The study area was divided into 5 regions, and the number of species, frequency of occurrence and prevalence of different digenean species and groups of species (depending on life cycle complexity) were compared among these regions, statistically controlling for environmental exposure. We found 14 species of digeneans, of which 13 have marine birds as final hosts. The number of species per sampling station increased westwards, and was higher on the Norwegian coast than on the Russian coast. The frequency of occurrence of digeneans with more than 1 intermediate host increased westwards, making up a larger proportion of the digeneans among infected snails. This was significant in L. saxatilis. The prevalence of different species showed the same pattern, and significantly more snails of both species were infected with digeneans with complicated life cycles in the western regions. In L. saxatilis, environmental exposure had a statistically significant effect on the distribution of the most common digenean species. This was less obvious in L. obtusata. The causes of changing species composition between regions are probably (1) the harsh climate in the eastern part of the study area reducing the probability of successful transmission of digeneans with complicated life cycles, and (2) the distribution of different final hosts.

The ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres interpres, a new definitive host for Gynaecotyla squatarolae (Digenea: Microphallidae).

Seo M, Guk SM, Chai JY.

Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea. bbbenji@freechal.com

Abstract

The ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres interpres, a migratory Korean bird, was proved to be a natural definitive host for Gynaecotyla squatarolae (Digenea: Microphallidae). The ruddy turnstone was found dead at the seashore of Okgueup, Gunsan-si, Jeollabuk-do. The intestinal tract was examined, and 98 unknown flukes were recovered. The worms were 600 284 micrometer in size, and had 2 ventral suckers. The seminal vesicle was large, the genital atrium was prominent, and the average egg size was 20 12.5 micrometer. Based on these results, the worms were identified as G. squatarolae. This is the first report on the ruddy turnstone as a natural definitive host of G. squatarolae in the Republic of Korea.

HAMILTON & DISTRICT BUDGERIGAR SOCIETY INC.

FLUKES (Trematodes)

A considerable number of different species of flukes infest a wide range of birds. The incidence of infestation, however, is highest in waterfowl and other aquatic species. Nevertheless, the pigeon has been found capable of harboring at least 28 different species of flukes. They occur in the liver, gut and many other organs.

Flukes are flat "worms" with a leaf-shaped outline, somewhat like a plaice or other flat fish (to which the name of fluke is also given). Some species are roughly cylindrical in shape. Parasitic flukes range from 3 to 25 mm. or more in length and may be 2 to 10 times longer than they are broad. The mouth is near the anterior end and usually surrounded by a sucker. A second sucker may be present on the ventral surface. Flukes feed on body fluids and in most species after digestion, the waste products are passed out of the mouth owing to the absence of an anus. Both male and female organs are present in the majority, although blood flukes are not hermaphroditic.

Most flukes (blood flukes being an exception) require two intermediate hosts for their development, the first of which must be a mollusk. The other intermediate host is usually a cold-blooded creature such as another type of invertebrate, but sometimes a fish. Birds become infested by eating the second intermediate hosts, or in the case of blood flukes by being attacked whilst in water by stages of the parasite released from infected mollusks. Flukes require moisture and warmth, and when in the intermediate host, occasional periods of dryness to stimulate reproduction. A few flourish fairly well in temperate climates, but most rapid development occurs in warm, and especially tropical areas, this being the case with many disease-producing organisms.

Clinical signs can vary considerably, ranging from general malaise, lack of appetite, thirst and diarrhea to anemia or jaundice. When the parasites infest the rectum and cloaca, they may interfere with egg laying. Flukes in the respiratory tract can cause asphyxia. A heavy burden such as the presence of several hundred causing obstruction in the gut or in a duct may kill the host. Flukes are regional in their distribution and if birds live in an area where they are known to occur, or if birds are acquired which have been recently obtained from the wild, samples of the excreta should be submitted to a suitable laboratory or veterinarian for examination. Diagnosis depends upon finding the typical fluke eggs in the droppings or flukes in the gut, liver, or other internal organs upon post-mortem examination, because clinical signs are never diagnostic in themselves.

Histopathology of CNS and nasal infections caused by Trichobilharzia regenti in vertebrates.

Kolárová L, Horák P, Cada F.

Department of Tropical Medicine, 3rd Clinic of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Charles University, Faculty Hospital Bulovka, Czech Republic. lkolar@lf1.cuni.cz

Abstract

In bird infections caused by Trichobilharzia regenti, the central nervous system (CNS) represents probably the main route to the nasal cavity, where maturation of the parasite occurs. However, in an abnormal mouse host, development is incomplete and is accompanied by a strong affinity of the parasite to the CNS. In order to explain pathological changes caused by the parasite, a histological study of cross-sections from the CNS and nasal cavity was performed. In the CNS of duck and mouse, immature flukes were found. Cross-sections showed parasites located either in meninges or in matter of various parts of the spinal cord and brain. In the spinal cord, the submeningeal location led to a strong inflammatory reaction around the schistosomula and resulted in eosinophilic meningitis. In the white and gray matter of the spinal cord and in the white matter of the brain, a cellular infiltration of spongy tissue surrounded the immature parasites; and we observed dystrophic and necrotic changes of neurons, perivascular eosinophilic inflammation in the spinal cord and brain, and cell infiltration around the central canal of the spinal cord. T. regenti adults and eggs were detected in the nasal mucosa of infected ducklings; and aging of the eggs resulted in various host reactions, ranging from focal accumulation of cells to the formation of granulomas. Histopathological changes may explain symptoms described previously for prepatent and patent phases of infections caused by T. regenti, i.e., neuromotor abnormalities in birds and mammals and hemorrhages/petechiae in birds, respectively.

Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2005 May;100(3):285-8. Epub 2005 Aug 15.

Pathology and first occurrence of the kidney trematode Paratanaisia bragai (Santos, 1934) Freitas, 1959 (Digenea: Eucotylidae) in Phasianus colchicus L., 1758, from Brazil.

Gomes DC, Menezes RC, Tortelly R, Pinto RM.

Departamento de Helmintologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, 21040-900 Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.

Abstract

The kidney trematode Paratanaisia bragai is reported for the first time parasitizing the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus L., 1758) and the pathological alterations associated to the parasitism are referred on the basis of 50 specimens of this bird from backyard flocks in 11 counties of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil after clinical examination, necropsies, and histopathological analysis. The counting of the kidney flukes was based on worms recovered from one of the kidneys, since the other was fixed in 10% formalin and then routinely processed for histopathological procedures. The prevalence of P. bragai was of 22%, with a mean intensity of 44.3, mean abundance of 9.7, and range of infection of 3-153. Parasitized birds did not present with clinical signs and kidney gross lesions. Microscopic lesions were mild and characterized by dilatation of the renal medullary collecting ducts, occasional flattening of the lining epithelium of the ducts and inflammatory reaction of variable intensity with granulocytes around the ureter branches and medullary collecting ducts. The severity and pattern of the microscopic lesions seem not to be associated to the size of the worm burden and could be related to the mechanic action of the parasites, without traumatism, in despite of the presence of the tegumentar spines in specimens of P. bragai.

PMID: 16113870 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]Free Article

Chapter 1 The Biology of the Caecal Trematode Zygocotyle lunata

References and further reading may be available for this article. To view references and further reading you must purchase this article.

Bernard Fried^*, Jane E. Huffman^†, Shamus Keeler^‡ and Robert C. Peoples^*

^*Department of Biology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042, USA

^†Department of Biological Sciences, Fish & Wildlife Microbiology Laboratory, East Stroudsburg University, East Stroudsburg, PA, USA

Abstract

This chapter examines the significant studies on the caecal paramphistomid Zygocotyle lunata from mainly 1941 to 2008. This digenean is one of two paramphistomid species in the family Zygocotylidae. Z. lunata has an almost global distribution being found in the wild in numerous waterfowl and various species of ruminants. It infects planorbid snails in the genera Helisoma and Biomphalaria. Because it may involve concurrent infections with Schistosoma mansoni in species of Biomphalaria snails, there is an interest in Z. lunata as a potential control agent against S. mansoni. Z. lunata may have some impact as a pathogen of birds in wildlife diseases, but its real assessment in this role is not fully understood. The cercariae of this paramphistomid when released from snails encyst on a substratum such as vegetation or the shells of aquatic invertebrates in the wild or in the laboratory on the glass or plastic of a container holding the snails. Most studies on the intra-molluscan parasitic stages are based on work from snails collected in the wild and experimental studies using laboratory-reared snails are sparse. Numerous experimental mammalian and avian hosts can be infected with the metacercarial cysts of this digenean, but quantitative experimental studies on the adult stages of this parasite using known numbers of cysts and well-defined strains of vertebrate hosts are sparse. Likewise, some studies on the immunology and pathology of this trematode have been done, but for the most part they are fragmentary and do not provide quantitative information on these topics. Published information on the molecular biology of this organism does not exist. The organism is in need of new research efforts at all levels of organization from the molecular to the community.

Wiad Parazytol. 2010;56(1):67-70.

New records of digenean flukes (Trematoda) in birds in Poland.

Okulewicz A, Okulewicz J, Sitko J, Wesołowska M.

Department of Parasitology, Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, Wrocław University, Przybyszewskiego 63, 51-148 Wrocław, Poland. annaok@microb.uni.wroc.pl

Abstract

Eleven new records of digenean species are reported in birds in Poland, i.e. Tylodelphys immer found in Gavia stellata, Strigea vanderbrokae in Pernis apivorus, Echinostoma academica in Numenius arquata, Echinochasmus euryporus in Buteo buteo, Patagifer parvispinosus and Petasiger grandivesicularis in Tachybaptus ruficollis, Notocotyloides petasatus in Calidris alpina, Plagiorchis arcuatus in Corvus cornix, Leyogonimus polyoon in Gallinula chloropus and Fulica atra, Lyperosomum alaudae in Sylvia atricapilla and Alauda arvenis, and Collyricloides massanae in Turdus merula. The latter finding constitutes a new host record (globally).

PMID: 20450011 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 29(3), 1993, pp. 434-439

© Wildlife Disease Association 1993

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTION OF DOMESTIC DUCKS AND RODENTS BY NOTOCOTYLUS A TTENUA TUS (TREMATODA: NOTOCOTYLIDAE)

Thaddeus K. Graczyk and Clive J. Shiff .

The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA

Abstract

 In order to study transmission patterns of Notocotylus attenuatus five 3-wk-old domestic ducks, five 8-wk-old rats and ten 4-wk-old mice were infected with the parasite. All ducks became infected and all flukes were recovered from the intestinal ceca. Worms moved down the length of the cecum during development and as the parasites grew they changed their method of attachment. Flukes became gravid by day 16 post-infection, after which growth ceased.

Egg filaments appear to play a role in the formation and movement of worm egg clusters from the distal portion of the cecum to the lumen of small intestine. Rodents also became infected with the parasite producing granulomatous nodular lesions in the lower small intestine but all flukes in the granulomata were dead. It is unlikely that transmission of this trematode can depend on mice and rats.

HELMINTH PARASITES OF THE BROWN-HEADED

COWBIRD, MOLOTHRUS ATER ATER, FROM OHIO1

C. LAWRENCE COOPER, E. LOUISE TROUTMAN, AND JOHN L. CRITES

Department of Zoology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio J^3210

Abstract

A total of 166 Brown-headed Cowbirds was examined for the occurrence of helminth parasites. Of these, 116 were collected on the campus of The Ohio State University, Franklin County, Ohio, from January 1964 through February 1965. The remainder of the birds were collected on South Bass Island, Ottawa County, Ohio, from July 1969 through

July 1970. Twenty species of helm`inth parasites are recorded from these birds. Sixteen of these helminth species are new host records: the trematodes Conspicuum icteridorum, Lutztrema sp., Prosthogonimus macrorchis, Tanaisia zarudnyi, and Zonorchis alveyi; the cestode Orthoskrjabinia rostellata; the nematodes Capillaria caudinflata, C. ovopunctatum, C. tridens, Chandlerella quiscali, Diplotriaena bargusinica, Microtetrameres sp., Splendidofilaria algonquinensis, Syngamus trachea, and Tetrameres americana; and the acanthocephalan Plagiorhynchus formosus.

Cathaemasia hians (Trematoda: Cathaemasiidae) infecting black stork nestlings (Ciconia nigra) from central Spain Santiago Merino1*, Javier Mart´õ nez2, Pilar Lanzarot3, Luis S. Cano,

Manuel Fern´andez-Garc´õ a  & Filomena Rodr´õ guez-Caabeiro2

Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, C/ Jos´e Guti´errez Abascal, 2, E-28006 Madrid, Spain, 2Departamento de Microbiolog´õ a y Parasitolog´õ a, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Alcal´a,E–28871 Alcal´a de Henares, Spain, and 3GesNatura s.l. Avenida de Brasil 4. E-28020 Madrid, Spain

Abstract

The trematode Cathaemasia hians is recorded for the first time in nestling Black storks, and for the first time in Black storks in Spain. The parasite was found in the upper part of the oesophagus of Black storks (Ciconia nigra). Presence of this parasite in three nestlings raises the possibility of completion of the parasite’s life cycle in Europe. In addition, a sub-adult bird recuperating from bone fractures was also found to be infected. C. hians is apparently absent from the more common white stork (Ciconia ciconia) from the same area. The different feeding behaviour of the two species of storks may account for this.

Title

Odonata of the lake area of Byelorussia and their role in spreading trematode infections of birds.

Foreign Title

Sbornik Rabot po Gel'mintologii posvyashchen 90-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya Akademika K. I. Skryabina.

Authors

NIKULIN, T. G.

Book

Sbornik Rabot po Gel'mintologii posvyashchen 90-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya Akademika K. I. Skryabina. 1971 pp. 284-289 pp.

Record Number

19720804172

Abstract

The involvement of dragon-flies in spreading trematode infections to poultry and aquatic birds in the Vitebsk and Grodnensk areas of Byelorussia, USSR, was investigated. Of 13 local species, 12 were infected with Prosthogonimus cuneatus metacercariae. Adults of Libellula depressa (75%) and larvae of Epitheca bimaculata (52%) were the most frequently infected. Infections were heaviest in the spring and summer but some dragon-flies remained infected into winter. Aeschna cyanea, Lestes sponsa and Sympetrum vulgatum were infected with metacercariae of Catatropis verrucosa and 2 echino-stomatids. G.I.P.

Trematodes of water birds in the Moldavian SSR (first communication).

Authors

SHUMILO, R. P.; TIKHON, E. I.

Editor

SPASSKI, A. A.

Book

Parasites of vertebrates 1969 pp. 115-135 pp.  Record Number  19710800217

Abstract

In a survey of trematodes of 25 species of aquatic birds in Moldavia, USSR, 51 % of 159 birds examined were found to be infected. The most frequently occurring trematodes were Echino-stomatidae (22 species), Diplostomatidae (8 species), Strigeidae (7 species), Cyclocoeliidae (5 species) and Notocotylidae (3 species). The other 8 families recovered were represented by only one to 2 species. The trematodes are described and figured. The degree of infection of the various aquatic birds and their role in the dissemination of trematode infection in domestic fowls is discussed. N.M.L.

CAUSES OF MORTALITY IN WHITE-TAILED SEA EAGLES FROM GERMANY

Oliver Krone¹, Torsten Langgemach², Paul Sömmer³ and Norbert Kenntner¹

¹ Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, P.O. 601103, D-10252 Berlin, Germany

² Brandenburg State Environmental Agency, Bird Conservation Centre, D-14715 Buckow, Germany

³ Brandenburg State Institution for large protected Areas, Nature Centre Woblitz, D-16798 Himmelpfort, Germany

Abstract

White-tailed Sea Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla found moribund or dead in the field were submitted for necropsy to the Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW) and to the Institute for Food, Drugs and Animal Diseases (ILAT), Berlin, Germany. The moribund eagles had died in rehabilitation stations or were euthanized. Onehundred-twenty White-tailed Sea Eagles were examined between 1990 and 2000, comprising 47% females, 38% males, and 15% undetermined. Nearly half (47.5%) of the birds were adult, 12.5% were subadult, 34% immature, 3% nestlings and in 3% no age class could be determined. The main causes of death in White-tailed Sea Eagles were collisions with trains (14%), lead intoxication (12%), infectious diseases (11%), trauma (10%), electrocution (9%), collision with wires (7%), injuries sustained during intra-specific conflict (5%), poisoning (3%), malformation (2%), and starvation (1%). Because of their decomposed condition no diagnosis could be made in 29 cases. The White-tailed Sea Eagle was documented as a new host for four nematode and one trematode species. For the first time trematode Metorchis was shown to be pathogenic to White-tailed Sea Eagles resulting in the death of six birds. Gunshot pellets were found in five out of 58 birds radio graphed.

Helminths of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) in Bashkir ASSR

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Gadelgaree Z. Haziev^a and Shakil A. Khan^a

^aVeterinary Faculty, Bashkir Agricultural Institute, 50 Let october 34, Ufa 450089, USSR

Accepted 11 October 1990. 

Available online 13 November 2002.

Abstract

Guinea fowl from different regions of Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (BASSR) were examined for helminths. Of the 547 fowl examined, 451 (82.4%) harboured at least one species of helminth. A total of 56 772 helminths were collected and classified. Of this number seven were found to be trematodes, 25 cestodes and 56 740 nematodes. Five species of helminths were identified. Amongst infected birds, trematodes were present in three (0.7%), cestodes in eight (1.8%) and nematodes in 451 (100%). Of all recorded helminths, the incidence of Heterakis gallinarum (Gmelin, 1790) was highest. Pre-patent periods for seven species of trematodes were observed in guinea fowl for the first time.

Authors: Borgsteede F.H.M., Okulewicz A., Zoun P.E.F., Okulewicz J.

Title: The helminth fauna of birds of prey (Accipitriformes, Falconiformes and Strigiformes) in the Netherlands

Discipline: PARASITOLOGY

Language: ENGLISH

Document type: ARTICLE

Publication order reference:
F. H.M. Borgsteede, Institute for Animal Science and Health (ID-Lelystad), P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, the Netherlands

 

Abstract

 Eighteen species of birds of prey in the Netherlands were examined for helminth parasites: Accipitriformes - Accipiter gentilis (15 birds), A. nisus (9), Aquila pomarina (1), Buteo buteo (56), B. lagopus (4), Circaetus gallicus (2), Circus aeruginosus (2), C. cyaneus (3), Pernis apivorus (5); Falconiformes - Falco columbarius (2), F. peregrinus (2), F. subbuteo (6), F. tinnunculus (31); Strigiformes - Asio flammeus (3), A. otus (35), Athene noctua (12), Strix aluco (19) and Tyto alba (15). Sixteen nematode species were found: Baruscapillaria falconis, Capillaria tenuissima, Eucoleus dispar, Pterothominx caudinflata, Cyathostoma americana, Porrocaecum angusticolle, P. depressum, P. spiralae, Physaloptera alata, P. apivori, Procyrnea leptoptera, P. seurati, P. spinosa, Spirocerca lupi, Synhimantus laticeps and Diplotriaena henryi. All species of birds were infected with nematodes with the exception of F. peregrinus. Eleven trematode species were present: Brachylaeme fuscatus, Echinostoma revolutum, Echinoparyphium agnatum, Strigea falconis, S. strigis, Parastrigea flexilis, Neodiplostomum spathoides, N. attenuatum, Ichthyocotylurus platycephalus and Prosthogonimus cuneatus. Trematode infections were found in all birds except A. nisus, C. cyaneus, P. apivorus, F. columbarius, F. peregrinus and A. flammeus. Centrorhynchus aluconis was the only identifiable acanthocephalan. Acanthocephalan infections were seen in A. nisus, B. buteo, C. gallicus, C. aeruginosus and S. aluco. Cestode infections were seen in 8 bird species. The cestodes could not be identified to the genus, because they were poorly preserved. Most findings are new host records for the Netherlands.

SEASONAL DYNAMICS OF TWO MORTALITY-RELATED TREMATODES USING AN

INTRODUCED SNAIL

Kristin K. Herrmann and Robert E. Sorensen*

Department of Zoology, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand. e-mail: herkr385@student.otago.ac.nz

Abstract

Seasonal dynamics of 2 trematode species, Cyathocotyle bushiensis and Sphaeridiotrema globulus, were assessed in relation to life history traits of the parasites and their hosts, as well as abundance of host species and abundance of infective stages. Both of these trematodes are associated with recurrent mortality of migrating waterbirds on the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge. An invasive snail species, Bithynia tentaculata, serves as intermediate host for both trematode species. In total, 2,970 snails were collected at 2 study sites. Prevalence and mean abundance of the 2 trematode species varied among dates and was attributed to several factors, including migration patterns of definitive hosts, snail population dynamics, and seasonal changes in temperature.

The surge of new infections of both parasites seems to be due to avian hosts foraging at this site during spring migration. The high prevalence and abundance of metacercariae among the snail population promote mortality among molluscivorous birds by increasing the probability of ingestion of a lethal dose. Additionally, mortality of non molluscivorous birds can be explained by accidental ingestion of a couple of highly infected snails resulting in a lethal dose.